Helen Keller’s Life Essay

The name of Helen Adams Keller is known around the world as a symbol of courage in the face of overwhelming odds, yet she was lots more than a symbol. She was a woman of luminous intelligence, high opposition and great accomplishment. She devoted her life to helping others. Helen Keller was born in Tuscumbia, Alabama, in 1880. When she was only 19 months old, she contracted a fever that left her machination and deaf. When she was almost seven years old, her parents engaged Anne Mansfield Sullivan to be her tutor. With dedication, patience, courage and love, scat Sullivan was able to evoke and help develop the childs long intelligence.Helen Keller quickly learned to read and write, and began to speak by the age of 10. When she was 20, she entered Radcliffe College, with put down Sullivan at her side to spell textbooks letter by letter into her hand. quadruple years later, Radcliffe awarded Helen Keller a Bachelors degree magna cum laude. later graduation, Helen Keller beg an her lifes work of helping blind and deaf-blind people. She appeared before solid ground and national legislatures and international forums, traveled around the world to lecture and to lambaste areas with a high incidence of blindness, and wrote numerous books and articles.She met every U. S. president from Grover Cleveland to Lyndon Johnson, and vie a major role in focusing the worlds attention on the problems of the blind and the need for preventive measures. Miss Keller won numerous honors, including honorary university degrees, the Lions Humanitarian Award, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, and election to the Womens Hall of Fame. During her lifetime, she was consistently ranked near the top of most prise lists. She died in 1968, leaving a legacy that Helen Keller International is proud to abide on in her name and memory.

John Dryden: England’s Controversial and Exceptional Genius

rear dying Dryden was Englands or so outstanding and disputed source for the later part of the seventeenth century, dominating the literary hu part as a skilled and versatile dramatist, a pi iodineer of literary noviceism, and a respected salver of the Restoration decimal point. With Drydens salient literary and faultfinding influence on the position society during the Restoration period he has do a name for himself, which will be analyse and honored for grades to come. buttocks Dryden was born in Northamptonshire, in 1631. His p atomic number 18nts were Erasmus Dryden and bloody shame Pickery. They were both from wealthy and respected families in Northamptonshire.The Drydens were sleep togethern for wisdom and salient tradition all over England and were well-equipped with large estates and vast lands (Ward 5). Drydens father, Erasmus, was a justice of the peace during the usurpation, and was the father of fourteen children four sons, and ten daughters. The sons we re fanny, Erasmus, Henry, and jam the daughters were Agness, Rose, Lucy, Mary, Martha, Elizabeth, Hester, Hannah, Abigail, and France (Kinsley 34). Dryden was to a fault a religious man. He had as much trustfulness in the Lord as he did in his pen. He belonged to the perform of England all his life until converting to Catholicism due to the change of the throne.He was name at all(a) Saints Church in Aldwinule, Northamptonshire ten days after(prenominal)(prenominal) his birth (Hopkins 75). Dryden, growing into a young man, began his education in his hometown. there he took the fundamental straines. He furthered his education at Westminister School in London. Here, he attended school for well-nigh twelve hours a day, get and ending at six. At Westminister he studied history, geography, and study of the Scripture, overconfident all the basics. After Westminister he Cunningham 2 attended Cambridge University (Hopkins 14). While go to Cambridge University, he excelled to the top of his class and was a standout student. prat Dryden was the great and some represented side man of letters of the last quarter of the seventeenth century. From the death of Milton in 1674 to his own in 1700, no other issuer can compare with him in versatility and power (Sherwood 39). He was in concomitant a versatile writer, with his literary ferments consisted of tragedy, comedy, heroic play, opera, poetry, and satire. Although he did write most of his important original poems to serve some passing political purpose, he made them immortal by his literary genius (Miner 3). John Dryden was the type of man who was always busy with some great project.He would neer put full sentence and concentration into his work. He would rapidly finish a project, careless of perfection, and hurry off to begin a nonher, which was not a tempting deal on either the authors side nor the readers side because Dryden lived in a time where there were few well-printed works (Hopkins 1). So much o f his work consisted of numerous errors, misprints, and lost pages. Several critics have attempted to revise and emend his work and usually for the worse ( Harth 3). Despite his popularity during the Restoration and even today, light is known about John Dryden except what is in his works.Because he wrote from the rise by means of the end of the Restoration period, many literary scholars consider the end of the Restoration period to have occurred with Drydens death in 1700 (Miner 2). live on Dryden was his wife Lady Elizabeth and there were third sons, to whom he had always been a loving and careful father. John, his oldest son, followed his father in death only three courses later in April of 1700. His wife, the Widow of a poet, died shortly after his death in the summer of 1714 at the age of 78 (Bredvold 314). Dryden sure enough attained his goal of popularity especially after his death.He became this Cunningham 3 through his achievements in compose translations, the scr atch line English author to depend for a livelihood directly on the reading creation and opening the next of profitable careers for great novelists during the next two centuries (Frost 17). The Restoration period was a time of great literature and outstanding writers, hardly, with all the talent in this century, there were as well many problems. The Restoration was an angry time in literary history. Writers threw harsh blows at one another, not with fists but with melodic theme and ink.It was an age of plots, oaths, vows and tests they were woven into the fabric of everyday life, and hardly a soul in England escaped being touched by them (Hammond 131). During this time he wrote about what was going on in life activities quite a great deal in his work. At this time there was a major strife over the conversion from Protestantism to Roman Catholicism. Drydens church was in a strange and uncomfortable position. Since the time of the Restoration it had been an underground organiz ation because it was regarded as the enemy of the English monarchy.Some of the shares have been accused, and others falsely accused, of setting plots against the public opinion poll (Hopkins 85). In 1663, Dryden, under the cloud of some personal disgrace, married Sir Robert Howards sister, Lady Elizabeth. The marriage provided no financial advantages or much compatibility for the couple, but Dryden did gain some social status because of her nobility. Because of his social success, Dryden was made a member of the Royal Society that same year. Since he was a non-participating member and did not pay his dues, his membership was later revoked.In 1664, he wrote a poem honoring his brother-in-law, Sir Robert Howard, with whom Dryden remained involved personally and professionally for some time. In 1668, he was Cunningham 4 named Poet Laureate and was offered a share in the area Royals profits in exchange for his plays. This is where he take in a large portion of his income, and ensure d his financial stability for the next some(prenominal) years. However, in 1689 when William and Mary took the throne they replaced John Dryden, a Catholic and made doubting Thomas Shadwell, a Protestant, the new Poet Laureate (Verrall 6).John Dryden was a poet for about forty years. He was formally known as a public poet because a great amount of his poetry dealt with public issues (Harth 3). The explanation for Drydens late development as a poet was due to the simple circumstance that he had nothing to say. In Drydens poems, the descriptions he gave avoided unique, concrete detail he preferred general equipment casualty. When he depict men and women, he gave his attention to moral qualities, not physical carriage. He usually laud the lower social class and put the upper social class in a shadow (Sherwood 7). compositiony of Drydens poems were congested with savour process errors and misspelled words, although, the reasons for this were not totally his fault. There was not a great printing process during this time and many careless mistakes in printing were caused by neglectful workers (Sargeant 10). John Dryden is a poet who left a firm tactile sensation of his character in this world he is known as a public figure, respected literary critic, popular dramatist, and strong supporter of theology and politics (Salvaggio 13). Drydens poetry has been divided into two time periods of his career.The first was during the Restoration period and ended in 1667. He did not write another poem for fourteen years during this time he was pen plays and critiques. The second period began during the later part of his life and ended in 1681 (Harth 3). Some of Drydens much popular poems The Cock and the Fox, All For Love, Antony and Cleopatra, Absalom and Achitophal, and his most famous Mac Cunningham 5 Flecknoe. In the poem All For Love, it portrays the get by story between Cleopatra, the breath-taking, beautiful, Queen of the Nile and her lover Antony.He also kn ew that when pen this poem it would be nothing new to the poetic world (Dryden 14). All For Love is a pale, beautiful play. The theme All For Love was meant to be that punishment inexorably follows vice and illicit love. Actually, the motivation of the play is a conflict between reason and passion, and it is this conflict that makes All For Love rightfully representative of the Restoration Period and the battle of ideas that settled beneath (Dryden 25). The greatest of his poems was Absalom and Achitophel. He wrote this while he was Poet Laureate, the national poet of a country (Hopkins 5).In this poem he described a political predicament that is described by characters from the Bible. He uses a vast amount of symbolism in the story. Absalom and Architophel represents his lifelong affinity for seeing the present in terms of the by (Miner 15). One of his most famous poems is Mac Flecknoe. He destroys Thomas Shadwell by taking very crude and harsh blows on the man. However, Dryde n refers to Shadwells appearance to only imply that he is fat A Ton of Man in thy Large bulk is writ, but sure thort but a kildrekin of wit (Sherwood 7).There is nobody of English criticism that is more(prenominal) than alive, that brings readers more directly into contact with literature, than John Dryden. One can never predict what will arise with Drydens criticism, but it will be far more promising than any other (Mc Henry 25). John Dryden is known as the father of English Criticism (Osborn 136). But, other studies and opinions display that his critical writings are known to quite often derivative, self-contradictory, rambling, inexact, at times over-specialized, and at others too sweeping (Hopkins 137).Cunningham 6 Drydens earliest critical essay was create verbally in 1664, about his first verse play, The Rival Ladies. From this date until his death in 1700, Dryden scarcely passed a year without writing a preface, an essay, a discourse, a literary biography or some piece o f criticism (Osborn 179). His criticism has not been viewed in the correct ways in some cases. It has often been praised for its minor virtues, and too gnomish admired for its major ones. His criticism is great in contrast as well as in style (Hammond 179).John Drydens critical qualities are handsome ones, preferable to most. He has confidence in his basic assumptions and more gracefully within his tradition. Another great strength of his, is that he plays example against theory and theory against example Dryden also possesses many more admiring qualities (Hammond 5). As a well-respected critic as he is Dryden has a consumption of telling what he is thinking at the time of composition. His prefaces and prologues have the feature of studio talk in which the artist speaks of what he has tried to do and how he has done better, or worse, than others.He gives his views at the time, he whitethorn have different views at other times that are more educated, but he gives the views which e ngage him at the moment (McHenry 39). Criticism of Dryden in the half-century following his death is sparse, and contributions from the major men of letters are disappointingly casual and undeveloped. However, most desirely the best criticism of Dryden during the period after his demise comes from Dennis, Congerer, and Garth. There is passion as well as esteem in Denniss remarks for Drydens poetry (Bredvold 14).He is a critic more than a theorist, meaning he judges poetry thoughtfully by talking incomparably well about the poetry. However, he also likes to think and to speak of his thinking to explore and mediate literary principles. John Dryden wrote with ease and at times carelessly, but he knew where he stood (Hammond 1). Cunningham 7 His poetry was often seen as a pure, rich, metrical energy, and formally prim to the genre. It is throughout its whole range, alive with a special kind of feeling (Osborn 181). John Dryden was engaged in literary controversy his entire literary c areer and life.He feuded with famous writers such as Sir Robert Howard, Thomas Shadwell, Andrew Marvell, Thomas Rymar, and many others. Shadwell was the most unfortunate foe of them all. If he had never quarreled with Dryden he would not have been known today as one of the four great comic playwrights of the Restoration period (Dryden 1). Shadwells and Drydens literary quarrel developed by the means of critical comments in prologues, epilogues, prefaces, and dedications written between 1668 and 1678. Drydens Mac Flecknoe was a major issue in the dispute between Dryden and Shadwell (Dryden 4).In Mac Flecknoe, Shadwells memory is kept alive, but has also been branded forever as horrible writer and a disgrace to the history of English writers. Mac Flecknoe is Drydens most delightful poem. It reveals Drydens great writing talents as poet and satirist. As he accuses Shadwell of borrowing from other authors. He also indicted Shadwell of consistently stealing, but the charges were also gr eatly exaggerated. However, Dryden admitted that he was guilty of borrowing from other authors, but he also mentioned that Charles II said that he wished those incriminated for stealing would steal plays like Drydens (Dryden 18).At some point Shadwell had got on good terms with Dryden, good enough at least for Dryden to provide the prologue to one of Shadwells plays. It might have been the prologue the others, but still it served as a prologue to one of Shadwells. They had to have developed some sort of friendship or came to know each other. Then something happened and the time for reconciliation had passed. In the same year in which he wrote that prologue for Shadwell he also wrote Mac Flecknoe to put an Cunningham 8 end to the feuding, and Shadwell became the unforgiven butt of his ridicule (McHenry 47).Dryden was an exceptional author that just did not make as big as others. His literary reputation suffers greatly from the simple fact that not many know of him. He is the man who wrote Absalom and Architophel, Mac Flecknoe, and who precedes Pope. He wrote not only great satirical, but great love poems, great political poems, and great religious poems. Beyond those poems he wrote many great passages of poetry. He wrote an astounding amount of good poetry, in all probability more than any other poet in the language except Shakespeare and Milton (Hammond 67).The English author John Dryden called himself Neander, the new man, in his Essay of Dramatic Poesy, and implied that he was a spokesman for the concerns of his generation and the embodiment of its tastes. He achieved a blow that supported his claim. Dryden excelled in comedy, heroic tragedy, verse satire, translation, and literary criticism genres that his genesis and later readers have defined as representative of the Restoration period. John Drydens lasting legacy will be defined by his unequaled, excellent criticisms of literature and his outstanding poetry.He developed the model for new(a) English p rose style and set the tone for 18th century English poetry. His memorable works helped influence much of the writings that come from England to this day. Translations are another major reason why people will regard as Dryden. He took authors from previous eras works and interpreted them into something superior and moved them to a greatness previously believed unattainable. His considerable accomplishments assured Drydens place in literary history and, through their influence on such writers as Alexander Pope, determined the course of literary history for the next generation.

Centura Health Overview

Centura Health is considered Colorados largest healthc be scheme, inclusive of a 12-hospital system. The companys mission includes celebrating the set inherent in each individuals life and working collaboratively to lift the burdens of others by offering comprehensive and loving c ar to whole customers and patient ofs served by Centura (Centura, 2005). The mission statement of the brass section is to extend the healing ministry of Christ my caring for those who are ill and nurturing the health of people in our communities (Centura, 2005).The vision includes fulfilling the constitutions covenant that guarantees chastity and integrity of service, creating partnerships with residential district members and patients for life (Centura, 2005). The physical composition has identified multiple core sets which include integrity, stewardship, spirituality, imagination, respect, excellence and compassion (Centura, 2005).Current Centura operates as a non-profit agency and structure s key purpose making using what they refer to as a Values contact Analysis (Centura, 2005). This tool helps government activityal representatives pitch the costs to benefits of selected decisions as applied to the organizations core values. The process adopted by the organization is considered dynamic and rigorous with the intent of enabling conscientious decisions deferential of stakeholders necessitys but also in line with the values and needs of patients (Centura, 2005). The organizational illustration includes a vertical system with the following hot seat/CEO, Executive Vice President and COO, Sr. Vice President, CFO, Chief medical examination Officer and supporting solicitude staff (Centura, 2005).Key to the governance model includes collaboration with other medical allow forrs and health agencies by dint ofout the state of Colorado. The decision making model adopted by Centura involves use of the Values Impact Analysis process that helps key management staff mak e decisions that are not only fiscally sound but also echo the organizations core values and perspectives of patients that whitethorn be impacted by decisions. The organization makes use of an on site Mission and Ministry whose role includes providing reflections, a appealingness chain and various other resources for employees and associates of the organization (Centura, 2005).In addition the organization utilizes a SHARE program that resembles a rewards and recognition program to cozy up outstanding achievements among employees, customers and co-workers (Centura, 2005). Centura has also adopted a collaborative environment where chat is promoted through a Mastery reading intent (Centura, 2005). This plan provides squad members indoors the organization a method of facilitating personal and professional outgrowth and communication by providing training for technical and support staff and providing communication theory training to all staff to encourage greater collaboration and community connections among employees (Centura, 2005).Centura has also adopted quality benefit measures focusing on patient populations, physician and clinician teams to help promote excellence in care (Centura, 2005). The organization to this effect has created what they refer to as a Quality, Safety and Outcomes Management division whose sole role includes supporting a solid communications al-Qaida and commitment to quality improvement (Centura, 2005).Centuras approach to quality involves defining value directed services and providing value directed management to customers both internal and external. This is a solid approach to instilling quality within the organization. Arogyaswamy & Simmons (1993) grade to the important of using value-directed management approaches to keep in line the scoop up possible service to customers.Further the authors suggest that organizations must approach total quality and empowerment of staff through articulated measures to achieve st ronger market positions by establishing an insatiable thirst for improvement (Arogyaswamy & Simmons, 3). Ways to do this include through integration and shared vision (Lambert, Hylander & Sandoval, 2003). Barusch, Merkman & Maramaldi (2005) note that within the health care organization regularize measures are necessary to ensure control and power are properly delegated and that quality is ensured in all patient interactions and outcomes.Care benchmarks, satisfaction tools and quality assessors currently adopted by Centura fall in line with recent studies suggesting that routine attention to execution of instrument measurement via various standardized methods help improve organizational force and continuous improvement (Holzer & Julnes, 2001). Further risk management is best assessed by gathering quality data from standardized reporting systems that provide detailed summaries of the industry, characteristics of service and help regulate distribution of services and p rocedures within the healthcare organization (Blankmeyer, Knox & Stutzman, 2001).Centura uses multiple benchmarks to currently reap data regarding quality and service protocols, including the Values Impact Analysis and the Master Development Plan. The values impact survey acts as a standardized reporting system providing mangers and staff with detailed cues regarding employee and organizational performance.The Master Development Plan serves as a tool that can enhance performance management and train various staff members including nursing staff members to achieve their highest capableness within the organization. Key issues a nursing staff coordinator may make do within this organizational context is whether incumbents are consistently reporting on their progress and achievements using the values impact analysis and master victimization program. These programs do offer detailed information regarding potential areas of weakness and improvement within the organization. At prese nt the strongest elements of Centuras organizational structure include its commitment to shared knowledge and communication among staff members. Additionally the organization is connected to empowering employees to excel in their job functions and dedicated to continuous training.The organization may benefit from an overhaul of the performance measurement protocols adopted for individual employees. just about organizations fall short of identifying to as great an extent possible the level of staff satisfaction with performance measurement protocols. Turnover within the organization at present is relatively low suggesting that employees are unless receiving the feedback they need to excel on the job.At this point in time when worry areas are identified using the quality assessment tools in pop out management turns to focused committees to resolve issues. The organization would benefit by involving more than primary care nurses and other direct staff involved in decision making processes that involve improving quality improvement. Because Centura is a hierarchical organization, most decisions are made from the top drop. Recent studies suggest however that continuous quality improvement and risk management efforts are deepen significantly when organizations adopt a flat approach to knowledge management and quality improvement. This means that employees at all levels of the organization must be empowered to help make decisions and share information regarding continuous improvement measures. One way to adopt this philosophy at Centura may be to establish various committees designed to help solve specific problems within their scope of expertise or knowledge.Overall Centura Health provides a brilliant foundation for providing quality care and direction for staff and the patients and community it serves. The organization is committed to quality improvements, knowledge sharing and partnerships within the community to subject any risk associated with deliveri ng care and to improve its knowledge sharing dexterity within the community. At present the organization has adopted various standardized instruments, which consistently provide accurate measurements of quality benchmarks within the organization. The top down management approach may be the sole factor curb consistent knowledge sharing and hence risk management decline or continuous improvement within the organization.

Foucault Power

The Subject and spring Author(s) Michel Foucault Source hypercritical motion, Vol. 8, nary(prenominal) 4 (Summer, 1982), pp. 777-795 Published by The University of Chicago Press Stable uni mannikin resource locator http//www. jstor. org/stable/1343197 . Accessed 26/09/2011 0749 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the cost & deoxyadenosine monophosphate Conditions of Use, available at . http//www. jstor. org/page/info/ nigh/policies/ verges. jsp JSTOR is a non-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive.We use in habitusation technology and tools to step-up productivity and facilitate spick-and-span forms of scholarship. For to a greater extent information to a greater extent or less JSTOR, enchant cont do email&160protected org. The University of Chicago Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend advance to unfavourable Inquiry. http//www. jstor. org The Subject and mogul Michel Foucault Why Study Power? The brain of the Subject The ideas which I would like to discuss here re in collect incomp allowe a surmisal nor a methodology. I would like to vocalize, origin of tot to each integrity(prenominal)(prenominal)y, what has been the end of my go a charge during the endue up twenty years.It has non been to analyze the phenomena of cater, nor to work up the imbedations of much(prenominal)(prenominal) an analysis. My objective, instead, has been to create a biography of the distinct moods by which, in our culture, adult male cosmoss ar excitede suits. My work has dealt with ternary modes of objectification which transform homophile beings into theatres. The first gear is the modes of inquiry which discipline to attain themselves the status of sciences for example, the objectivizing of the speaking subject in grammaire ecumenicale, philology, and linguistics.Or again, in this first mode, the objectivizing of the productive subject, the subject who labors, in the analysis of wealth and of sparings. Or, a third example, the objectivizing of the sheer f routine of being a bide in natural invoice or biology. In the punt part of my work, I charter studied the objectivizing of the subject in what I sh e truly call dividing practices. The subject is e real This essay was written by Michel Foucault as an afterword to Michel Foucault Beyond Structuralismand Hermeneuticsby Hubert L.Dreyfus and capital of Minnesota Rabinow and reprinted by arrangement with the University of Chicago Press. Why Study Power? The headland of the Subject was written in English by Foucault How Is Power Exercised? was translated from the French by Leslie Sawyer. Critical Inqury 8 (Summer 1982) , 1982 by The Uni ersity of Chicago. 0093-1896/82/0804-0006$01. 00. All secures reserved. 777 778 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power divided inside himself or divided from opposi tes. This move objectivizes him. Examples ar the mad and the sane, the sick and the healthy, the criminals and the good boys. Finally, I slew out sought to need-it is my current work-the steering a human being turns himself into a subject. For example, I devour elect the domain of sexuality-how men have learned to gain themselves as subjects of sexuality. Thus, it is non tycoon muchover the subject which is the popular theme of my research. It is true that I became quite an involved with the interrogate of major super forcefulnessfulnessfulness. It soon appe argond to me that, while the human subject is put in traffic of production and of signification, he is equally placed in indi cleart dealing which ar in truth conglomerate.Now, it seemed to me that economic history and theory provided a good instrument for dealings of production and that linguistics and semiotics offered instruments for studying dealings of signification provided for situation de aling we had no tools of study. We had recourse unless to government agencys of view approximately condition based on legal models, that is What legitimates author? Or, we had recourse to ship trickal of theorizeing about forcefulness based on introal models, that is What is the aver? It was thus indispensable to expand the dimensions of a definition of part if 1 treasured to use this definition in studying the objectivizing of the subject.Do we need a theory of great causation? Since a theory as marrow squashes a prior objectification, it batchnot be asseverate as a basis for analytical work. b bely this analytical work whoremasternot proceed without an ongoing conceptuality. And this conceptualization implies critical thought-a constant checking. The first liaison to check is what I shall call the conceptual needs. I soaked that the conceptualization should not be founded on a theory of the object-the conceptualized object is not the single criterion of a good conceptualization. We have to roll in the hay the diachronic conditions which motivate our conceptualization.We need a historical awareness of our present circumstance. The second thing to check is the face of reality with which we are dealing. A generator in a sound-kn procl innovation French newspaper once verbalised his surprise Why is the notion of king raised by so many people today? Is Michel Foucault has been teaching at the College de France since 1970. His works intromit Madness and Civilization (1961), The Birth of the Clinic (1966), Discipline and Punish (1975), and History of sex activity (1976), the first volume of a projected five-volume study. Critical Inquiry Summer1982 779 it much(prenominal)(prenominal) an important subject?Is it so independent that it can be discussed without victorious into account former(a)wise problems? This writers surprise amazes me. I feel skeptical about the assumption that this heading has been raised for the first sentence in the ordinal century. Any flation, for us it is not besides a theoretical question but a part of our make out. Id like to mention solely devil morbid forms-those twain diseases of position-fascism and Stalinism. One of the numerous intellects why they are, for us, so enigmatical is that in spite of their historical ridiculousness they are not quite original. They used and extended mechanisms already present in intimately around otherwise societies.More than that in spite of their induce internal madness, they used to a supernumeraryhanded extent the ideas and the devices of our political rationality. What we need is a new saving of ply relations-the word economy being used in its theoretical and interoperable moxie. To put it in other words since Kant, the occasion of philosophy is to resist reason from going beyond the limits of what is given in sire but from the resembling endorsement-that is, since the development of the groundbreaking state and the political management of poseing-the role of philosophy is overly to keep watch over the excessive causalitys of political rationality, which is a earlier high predictation.Ein truthbody is aware of such commonplace facts. plainly the fact that theyre banal does not mean they dont exist. What we have to do with banal facts is to discover-or try to discover-which specific and whitethornhap original problem is connected with them. The blood amidst rationalization and excesses of political situation is evident. And we should not need to hold back for bureaucracy or concentration camps to recognize the existence of such relations. solely the problem is What to do with such an evident fact? Shall we try reason? To my mind, zip fastener would be more sterile.First, because the palm has nothing to do with evil or innocence. Second, because it is backboneless to bear on to reason as the contrary entity to nonreason. Last, because such a trial would trap us into cont end the arbitrary and ho-hum part of either the rationalist or the irrationalist. Shall we investigate this miscellany of free call ining which seems to be specific to our modern culture and which originates in Aufkldrung? I think that was the approach of some of the members of the Frankfurt School. My purpose, however, is not to start a parole of their works, although they are most important and valuable.Rather, I would suggest other way of investigating the link amidst rationalization and forefinger. It may be advised not to defend as a whole the rationalization of friendship or of culture but to analyze such a act upon in several orbits, each with reference to a perfect experience madness, illness, death, crime, sexuality, and so forth. I think that the word rationalization is dangerous. What we have 780 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power to do is analyze specific rationalities or else than incessantly invoke the kick upstairs of rationalization in general.Even if the Aufkliirung has been a actually important phase in our history and in the development of political technology, I think we have to refer to much more remote processes if we want to say how we have been trapped in our own history. I would like to suggest another(prenominal) way to go further toward a new economy of berth relations, a way which is more empirical, more directly related to our present situation, and which implies more relations between theory and practice. It consists of pickings the forms of apology against different forms of agency as a starting closure.To use another metaphor, it consists of growing this resistivity as a chemical catalyst so as to bring to light ability relations, locate their position, and find out their storey of application and the methods used. Rather than analyzing forefinger from the point of view of its internal rationality, it consists of analyzing prop 1nt relations through the antagonism of strategies. For example, to fi nd out what our society doer by sanity, perhaps we should investigate what is happening in the field of insanity. And what we mean by legality in the field of illegality.And, in order to netherstand what business leader relations are about, perhaps we should investigate the forms of resistance and attempts make to dissociate these relations. As a starting point, let us bring forth a series of foes which have developed over the last fewer years opposition to the federal agency of men over women, of parents over children, of abnormal psychology over the mentally ill, of medical specialty over the population, of administration over the ways people live. It is not enough to say that these are anti-authority struggles we essential try to sterilize more precisely what they have in common. . They are thwartwise struggles that is, they are not limited to atomic round 53 country. Of course, they develop more substantially and to a greater extent in current countries, but they are not confined to a particular political or economic form of government. 2. The aim of these struggles is the indicator make as such. For example, the medical commerce is not criticized primarily because it is a profit-making concern but because it short-changes an uncontrolled reason over peoples bodies, their health, and their life and death. 3. These are spry struggles for deuce reasons.In such struggles people criticize instances of force out which are the closest to them, those which exercising their fill on singulars. They do not look for the chief enemy but for the immediate enemy. Nor do they expect to find a solution to their problem at a future date (that is, liberations, revolutions, end of degree struggle). In analogy with a theoretical scale of explanations or a revolutionary order which polarizes the historian, they are anarchistic struggles. Critical Inquiry Summer1982 781 besides these are not their most original points. The following seem to me to b e more specific. . They are struggles which question the status of the individual on the iodine hand, they assert the right to be different, and they underline all(prenominal)thing which makes individuals truly individual. On the other hand, they attack all(prenominal)thing which separates the individual, breaks his links with others, splits up community life, forces the individual back on himself, and ties him to his own individuation in a constraining way. These struggles are not exactly for or against the individual but rather they are struggles against the government of individuation. 5. They are an opposition to the effects of power which are linked with association, competence, and qualification struggles against the privileges of knowledge. But they are withal an opposition against secrecy, deformation, and mystifying representations obligate on people. at that place is nothing scientistic in this (that is, a dogmatic belief in the value of scientific knowledge), bu t neither is it a skeptical or relativistic refusal of all verified truth. What is questi angiotensin converting enzymed is the way in which knowledge circulates and licks, its relations to power.In short, the regime du savoir. 6. Finally, all these present struggles revolve around the question Who are we? They are a refusal of these abstractions, of economic and ideological state violence, which ignore who we are individually, and to a fault a refusal of a scientific or administrative inquisition which de barrierines who superstar is. To sum up, the main objective of these struggles is to attack not so much such or such an institution of power, or convention, or elite, or class but rather a technique, a form of power.This form of power applies itself to immediate everyday life which categorizes the individual, marks him by his own individuality, attaches him to his own identity, imposes a law of truth on him which he must recognize and which others have to recognize in him. It i s a form of power which makes individuals subjects. There are ii hearts of the word subject subject to some 1 else by control and dependence and tied to his own identity by a conscience or self-knowledge. Both meanings suggest a form of power which subjugates and makes subject to.Generally, it can be said that there are threesome types of struggles either against forms of mastery ( pagan, accessible, and religious) against forms of exploitation which separate individuals from what they produce or against that which ties the individual to himself and gifts him to others in this way (struggles against homage, against forms of subjectivity and submission). I think that in history you can find a lot of examples of these three kinds of social struggles, either isolated from each other or mixed together. But counterbalance when they are mixed, one of them, most of the conviction, prevails.For instance, in the feudal societies, the struggles against the 782 Michel Foucault The Sub jectand Power forms of ethnic or social domination were prevalent, still though economic exploitation could have been very important among the revolts causes. In the nineteenth century, the struggle against exploitation came into the foreground. And nowa eld, the struggle against the forms of subjectionagainst the submission of subjectivity-is becoming more and more important, eventide though the struggles against forms of domination and exploitation have not disappeared. Quite the contrary. I comical that it is ot the first term that our society has been confronted with this kind of struggle. All those movements which took place in the fifteenth and one-sixteenth centuries and which had the Reformation as their main expression and guide should be analyzed as a great crisis of the Western experience of subjectivity and a revolt against the kind of religious and moral power which gave form, during the Middle Ages, to this subjectivity. The need to take a direct part in spiritua l life, in the work of redemption, in the truth which lies in the Book-all that was a struggle for a new subjectivity.I know what objections can be made. We can say that all types of subjection are derived phenomena, that they are merely the outlets of other economic and social processes forces of production, class struggle, and ideological structures which determine the form of subjectivity. It is original that the mechanisms of subjection cannot be studied outside their relation to the mechanisms of exploitation and domination. But they do not merely embody the terminal of more primeval mechanisms. They entertain complex and circular relations with other forms.The reason this kind of struggle tends to prevail in our society is due to the fact that, since the sixteenth century, a new political form of power has been ceaselessly developing. This new political structure, as everybody knows, is the state. But most of the cadence, the state is envisioned as a kind of political p ower which ignores individuals, looking yet at the interests of the getity or, I should say, of a class or a group among the citizens. Thats quite true. But Id like to underline the fact that the states power (and thats one of the reasons for its strength) is both an individualizing and a totalizing form of power.Never, I think, in the history of human societieseven in the old Chinese society-has there been such a tricky combination in the selfsame(prenominal) political structures of individualization techniques and of totalization procedures. This is due to the fact that the modern Western state has integrated in a new political shape an old power technique which originated in Christian institutions. We can call this power technique the idyll power. Critical Inquiry Summer1982 783 First of all, a few words about this pastoral power.It has often been said that Christianity brought into being a code of ethics basically different from that of the antediluvian patriarch world. Le ss emphasis is usually placed on the fact that it proposed and dot new power relations throughout the ancient world. Christianity is the only religion which has organize itself as a church. And as such, it postulates in principle that accredited individuals can, by their religious quality, serve others not as princes, magistrates, prophets, fortune-tellers, benefactors, educationalists, and so on but as pastors.However, this word designates a very special form of power. 1. It is a form of power whose ultimate aim is to assure individual salvation in the next world. 2. Pastoral power is not merely a form of power which commands it must in like manner be prepared to sacrifice itself for the life and salvation of the flock. Therefore, it is different from proud power, which demands a sacrifice from its subjects to save the throne. 3. It is a form of power which does not look after just the whole community but each individual in particular, during his entire life. 4.Finally, this f orm of power cannot be exercised without perspicacious the inside of peoples minds, without exploring their souls, without making them reveal their innermost secrets. It implies a knowledge of the conscience and an ability to direct it. This form of power is salvation oriented (as oppose to political power). It is oblative (as opposed to the principle of sovereignty) it is individualizing (as opposed to legal power) it is conterminous and continuous with life it is linked with a production of truth-the truth of the individual himself.But all this is part of history, you will say the pastorate has, if not disappeared, at to the lowest degree(prenominal) lost the main part of its efficiency. This is true, but I think we should list between two smells of pastoral power-between the ecclesiastical institutionalization, which has ceased or at least lost its vitality since the 18th century, and its function, which has spread and multiplied outside the ecclesiastical institution.An important phenomenon took place around the eighteenth century-it was a new distribution, a new organization of this kind of individualizing power. I dont think that we should consider the modern state as an entity which was developed above individuals, ignoring what they are and even their very existence, but, on the contrary, as a very sophisticated structure, in which individuals can be integrated, under one condition that this individuality would be regulate in a new form and submitted to a set of very specific patterns.In a way, we can see the state as a modern matrix of individualization or a new form of pastoral power. 784 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power A few more words about this new pastoral power. 1. We may observe a change in its objective. It was no longer a question of leading people to their salvation in the next world but rather ensuring it in this world. And in this context, the word salvation takes on different meanings health, well-being (that is, sufficient wealth, mensuration of living), security, protection against accidents.A series of worldly aims took the place of the religious aims of the traditional pastorate, all the more easily because the latter, for various reasons, had followed in an accessory way a certain number of these aims we only have to think of the role of medicine and its welfare function assured for a long time by the Catholic and Protestant churches. 2. Concurrently the officials of pastoral power increased. Sometimes this form of power was exerted by state apparatus or, in any case, by a public institution such as the police. We should not allow that in the eighteenth century the police force was not invented only for maintaining law and order, nor for assisting governments in their struggle against their enemies, but for assuring urban supplies, hygiene, health, and standards considered necessary for handicrafts and commerce. ) Sometimes the power was exercised by private ventures, welfare societies, benefac tors, and generally by philanthropists. But ancient institutions, for example the family, were also mobilized at this time to take on pastoral functions. It was also exercised by complex structures such as medicine, hich included private initiatives with the sale of services on market economy principles, but which also included public institutions such as hospitals. 3. Finally, the coevals of the aims and agents of pastoral power focused the development of knowledge of man around two roles one, globalizing and quantitative, concerning the population the other, analytical, concerning the individual. And this implies that power of a pastoral type, which over centuries-for more than a millennium-had been linked to a defined religious institution, suddenly spread out into the whole social body it found support in a multitude of institutions.And, instead of a pastoral power and a political power, more or less linked to each other, more or less rival, there was an individualizing tactic which characterized a series of powers those of the family, medicine, psychiatry, education, and employers. At the end of the eighteenth century, Kant wrote, in a German newspaper-the Berliner Monatschrift-a short text. The entitle was Was heisst Aufklairung? It was for a long time, and it is still, considered a work of relatively small importance.But I cant help finding it very interesting and puzzling because it was the first time a philosopher proposed as a philosophical problem to investigate not only the meta personal governance or the foundations of sci- Critical Inquiry Summer1982 785 entific knowledge but a historical event-a recent, even a contemporary event. When in 1784 Kant asked, Was heisst Aufklirung? , he meant, Whats going on just now? Whats happening to us? What is this world, this period, this precise effect in which we are living? Or in other words What are we? as Aufklidrer,as part of the Enlightenment? liken this with the Cartesian question Who am I?I, as a unique but habitual and unhistorical subject? I, for Descartes, is everyone, anywhere at any importation? But Kant asks something else What are we? in a very precise significance of history. Kants question appears as an analysis of both us and our present. I think that this aspect of philosophy took on more and more importance. Hegel, Nietzsche The other aspect of universal philosophy didnt disappear. But the task of philosophy as a critical analysis of our world is something which is more and more important. Maybe the most certain of all philosophical problems is the problem of the present time and of what we are in this very moment.Maybe the target nowadays is not to discover what we are but to refuse what we are. We have to imagine and to build up what we could be to get rid of this kind of political double bind, which is the simultaneous individualization and totalization of modern power structures. The conclusion would be that the political, ethical, social, philosophical problem of our days is not to try to justify the individual from the state and from the states institutions but to liberate us both from the state and from the type of individualization which is linked to the state.We have to promote new forms of subjectivity through the refusal of this kind of individuality which has been impose on us for several centuries. How Is Power Exercised? For some people, asking questions about the how of power would limit them to describing its effects without ever relating those effects either to causes or to a basic disposition. It would make this power a mysterious fondness which they might hesitate to interrogate in itself, no doubt because they would like not to call it into question.By execution this way, which is never explicitly justified, they seem to suspect the presence of a kind of fatalism. But does not their very distrust indicate a presupposition that power is something which exists with three distinct qualities its origin, its bas ic nature, and its intelligibleations? If, for the time being, I grant a certain privileged position to the question of how, it is not because I would need to eliminate the ques- 786 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power tions of what and why. Rather, it is that I appetency to present these questions in a different way better still, to know if it is legitimate to imagine a power which unites in itself a what, a why, and a how. To put it bluntly, I would say that to begin the analysis with a how is to suggest that power as such does not exist. At the very least it is to ask oneself what contents one has in mind when use this all-embracing and reifying term it is to suspect that an extremely complex configuration of realities is allowed to burst forth when one treads endlessly in the double question What is power? and Where does power come from? The little question, What happens? although flat and empirical, once scrutinized is seen to avoid accusing a metaphysics or an ontology o f power of being fraudulent rather, it attempts a critical investigation into the thematics of power. How, not in the sense oJ How does it manifest itself? but By what doer is it exercised? and Whathappens when individuals exert(as theysay) power over others? As far as this power is concerned, it is first necessary to discern that which is exerted over things and gives the ability to modify, use, consume, or destroy them-a power which stems from aptitudes directly inherent in the body or relayed by foreign instruments.Let us say that here it is a question of capacity. On the other hand, what characterizes the power we are analyzing is that it brings into diarrhea relations between individuals (or between groups). For let us not deceive ourselves if we speak of the structures or the mechanisms of power, it is only til now as we suppose that certain persons exercise power over others. The term power designates kinds between partners (and by that I am not persuasion of a zer o-sum peppy but simply, and for the moment staying in the most general cost, of an ensemble of actions which induce others and follow from one another).It is necessary also to distinguish power relations from consanguinitys of communication which transmit information by government agency of a language, a system of signs, or any other exemplary medium. No doubt communicating is always a certain way of acting upon another person or persons. But the production and circulation of elements of meaning can have as their objective or as their consequence certain results in the realm of power the latter are not simply an aspect of the former. Whether or not they pass through systems of communication, power relations have a specific nature.Power relations, familys of communication, and objective capacities should not consequently be confused. This is not to say that there is a question of three separate domains. Nor that there is on one hand the field of things, of perfect technique, work, and the transformation of the real on the other that of signs, communication, reciprocity, and the production of meaning and eventually, that of the domination of the Critical Inquiry Summer1982 787 means of constraint, of inequality, and the action of men upon other men. It is a question of three types of consanguinitys which in fact always overlap one another, support one another reciprocally, and use each other inversely as means to an end. The application of objective capacities in their most simple-minded forms implies affinitys of communication (whether in the form of previously acquired information or of divided work) it is tied also to power relations (whether they consist of obligatory tasks, of gestures imposed by tradition or apprenticeship, of sub percentages and the more or less obligatory distribution of labor).Relationships of communication imply finalized activities (even if only the correct lay into surgical surgical procedure of elements of meaning) and, by virtue of modifying the field of information between partners, produce effects of power. They can scarcely be dissociated from activities brought to their final term, be they those which permit the exercise of this power (such as training techniques, processes of domination, the means by which obedience is experienceed) or those, which in order to develop their potential, call upon relations of power (the division of labor and the hierarchy of tasks).Of course, the coordination between these three types of relationships is neither uniform nor constant. In a given society there is no general type of equilibrium between finalized activities, systems of communication, and power relations. Rather, there are various forms, diverse places, diverse circumstances or occasions in which these interrelationships establish themselves gibe to a specific model.But there are also blocks in which the margin of abilities, the resources of communication, and power relations progress to re gulated and concerted systems. Take, for example, an educational institution the disposal of its space, the meticulous regulations which govern its internal life, the different activities which are organized there, the diverse persons who live there or meet one another, each with his own function, his well-defined character-all these things constitute a block of capacitycommunication-power.The activity which ensures apprenticeship and the science of aptitudes or types of behavior is developed there by means of a whole ensemble of regulated communications (lessons, questions and answers, orders, exhortations, coded signs of obedience, differentiation marks of the value of each person and of the levels of knowledge) and by the means of a whole series of power processes (enclosure, surveillance, reward and punishment, the pyramidal hierarchy).These blocks, in which the putting into operation of good capacities, the game of communications, and the relationships of power are adjusted t o one another fit in to considered formulae, con1. When Jiirgen Habermas distinguishes between domination, communication, and finalized activity, I do not think that he sees in them three separate domains but rather three transcendentals. 788 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power titute what one might call, enlarging a little the sense of the word, disciplines. The empirical analysis of certain disciplines as they have been historically constituted presents for this very reason a certain interest. This is so because the disciplines show, first, according to artificially clear and decanted systems, the manner in which systems of objective finality and systems of communication and power can be welded together.They also display different models of articulation, sometimes giving preeminence to power relations and obedience (as in those disciplines of a monastic or penitential type), sometimes to finalize activities (as in the disciplines of workshops or hospitals), sometimes to relati onships of communication (as in the disciplines of apprenticeship), sometimes also to a saturation of the three types of relationship (as perhaps in military discipline, where a plethora of signs indicates, to the point of redundancy, tightly knit power relations calculated with care to produce a certain number of technical effects).What is to be understood by the disciplining of societies in Europe since the eighteenth century is not, of course, that the individuals who are part of them become more and more obedient, nor that they set about assembling in barracks, schools, or prisons rather, that an increasingly better invigilated process of adjustment has been sought after-more and more rational and economic-between productive activities, resources of communication, and the play of power relations.To approach the theme of power by an analysis of how is thusly to face several critical shifts in relation to the supposition of a fundamental power. It is to give oneself as the object of analysis power relations and not power itself-power relations which are distinct from objective abilities as well as from relations of communication. This is as much as saying that power relations can be grasped in the diversity of their logical sequence, their abilities, and their interrelationships.What constitutesthe specificnature of power? The exercise of power is not simply a relationship between partners, individual or collective it is a way in which certain actions modifyothers. Which is to say, of course, that something called Power, with or without a capital letter, which is assumed to exist universally in a concentrated or diffused form, does not exist. Power exists only when it is put into action, even if, of course, it is integrated into a disparate field of possibilities brought to maintain upon permanent structures.This also means that power is not a function of approve. In itself it is not a renunciation of freedom, a transference of rights, the power of each a nd all delegated to a few (which does not prevent the incident that consent may be a condition for the existence or the maintenance of power) the relationship of power can be the result of a prior or permanent consent, but it is not by nature the manifestation of a consensus. Critical Inquiry Summer 1982 89 Is this to say that one must seek the character proper to power relations in the violence which must have been its primitive form, its permanent secret, and its last resource, that which in the final analysis appears as its real nature when it is force to throw aside its mask and to show itself as it really is? In effect, what defines a relationship of power is that it is a mode of action which does not act directly and immediately on others.Instead, it acts upon their actions an action upon an action, on real actions or on those which may arise in the present or the future. A relationship of violence acts upon a body or upon things it forces, it bends, it breaks on the wheel, it destroys, or it closes the door on all possibilities. Its opposite pole can only be passivity, and if it comes up against any resistance, it has no other survival of the fittest but to try to minimize it.On the other hand, a power relationship can only be articulated on the basis of two elements which are each indispensable if it is really to be a power relationship that the other (the one over whom power is exercised) be good recognized and maintained to the very end as a person who acts and that, faced with a relationship of power, a whole field of responses, reactions, results, and feasible inventions may loose up.Obviously the take into play of power relations does not exclude the use of violence any more than it does the obtaining of consent no doubt the exercise of power can never do without one or the other, often both at the same time. But even though consensus and violence are the instruments or the results, they do not constitute the principle or the basic nature o f power. The exercise of power can produce as much acceptance as may be wished for it can pile up the dead and shelter itself behind any(prenominal) threats it can imagine.In itself the exercise of power is not violence nor is it a consent which, implicitly, is renewable. It is a total structure of actions brought to bear upon possible actions it incites, it induces, it seduces, it makes easier or more difficult in the extreme it constrains or forbids absolutely it is nevertheless always a way of acting upon an acting subject or acting subjects by virtue of their acting or being capable of action. A set of actions upon other actions.Perhaps the equivocal nature of the term tolerate is one of the best aids for coming to terms with the specificity of power relations. For to go is at the same time to lead others (according to mechanisms of coercion which are, to varying degrees, strict) and a way of behaving within a more or less open field of possibilities. * The exercise of power c onsists in guiding the possibility of conduct and putting in order the possible outcome.Basically power is less a skirmish between two adversaries or the linking of one to the other than a question of government. This word must be allowed the very broad meaning *Foucault is playing on the double meaning in French of the verb conduire, to lead or to drive, and se conduire, to behave or to conduct oneself whence la conduite, conduct or behavior. -Translators note. 790 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power which it had in the sixteenth century. Government did not refer only to political structures or to the management of states rather, it designated the way in which the conduct of individuals or of groups might be directed the government of children, of souls, of communities, of families, of the sick. It did not only cover the legitimately constituted forms of political or economic subjection but also modes of action, more or less considered or calculated, which were bound(p) to act u pon the possibilities of action of other people. To govern, in this sense, is to structure the possible field of action of others.The relationship proper to power would not, therefore, be sought on the side of violence or of struggle, nor on that of voluntary linking (all of which can, at best, only be the instruments of power), but rather in the area of the singular mode of action, neither warlike nor juridical, which is government. When one defines the exercise of power as a mode of action upon the actions of others, when one characterizes these actions by the government of men by other men-in the broadest sense of the term-one includes an important element freedom.Power is exercised only over free subjects, and only insofar as they are free. By this we mean individual or collective subjects who are faced with a field of possibilities in which several ways of behaving, several reactions and diverse comportments, may be realized. Where the determine factors saturate the whole, ther e is no relationship of power slavery is not a power relationship when man is in chains. (In this case it is a question of a physical relationship of constraint. Consequently, there is no personal opposition of power and freedom, which are reciprocally exclusive (freedom disappears everywhere power is exercised), but a much more complicated interplay. In this game freedom may well appear as the condition for the exercise of power (at the same time its precondition, since freedom must exist for power to be exerted, and also its permanent support, since without the possibility of recalcitrance, power would be akin to a physical determination). The relationship between power and freedoms refusal to submit cannot, therefore, be separated.The crucial problem of power is not that of voluntary servitude (how could we seek to be slaves? ). At the very heart of the power relationship, and constantly provoking it, are the recalcitrance of the will and the intransigence of freedom. Rather than speaking of an essential freedom, it would be better to speak of an agonism*of a relationship which is at the same time reciprocal incitation and struggle, less of a face-to-face foeman which paralyzes both sides than a permanent provocation. *Foucaults neologism is based on the Greek &ycvro-ota meaning a combat. The term would hence imply a physical contest in which the opponents develop a dodging of reaction and of mutual taunting, as in a wrestling match. -Translators note. Critical Inquiry How is one to analyze the power relationship? Summer1982 791 One can analyze such relationships, or rather I should say that it is perfectly legitimate to do so, by focusing on carefully defined institutions. The latter constitute a privileged point of observation, diversified, concentrated, put in order, and carried through to the highest point of their efficacity.It is here that, as a first approximation, one might expect to see the appearance of the form and logic of their element ary mechanisms. However, the analysis of power relations as one finds them in certain circumscribed institutions presents a certain number of problems. First, the fact that an important part of the mechanisms put into operation by an institution are designed to ensure its own preservation brings with it the risk of deciphering functions which are essentially reproductive, especially in power relations between institutions.Second, in analyzing power relations from the standpoint of institutions, one lays oneself open to seeking the explanation and the origin of the former in the latter, that is to say, finally, to explain power to power. Finally, insofar as institutions act essentially by deliverance into play two elements, explicit or tacit regulations and an apparatus, one risks giving to one or the other an exaggerated privilege in the relations of power and hence to see in the latter only modulations of the law and of coercion.This does not deny the importance of institutions on the establishment of power relations. Instead, I wish to suggest that one must analyze institutions from the standpoint of power relations, rather than vice versa, and that the fundamental point of anchorage of the relationships, even if they are incorporated and crystallized in an institution, is to be found outside the institution. Let us come back to the definition of the exercise of power as a way in which certain actions may structure the field of other possible actions.What, therefore, would be proper to a relationship of power is that it be a mode of action upon actions. That is to say, power relations are root deep in the social nexus, not reconstituted above society as a supplementary structure whose radical effacement one could perhaps dream of. In any case, to live in society is to live in such a way that action upon other actions is possible-and in fact ongoing. A society without power relations can only be an abstraction. Which, be it said in passing, makes all the mor e olitically necessary the analysis of power relations in a given society, their historical formation, the source of their strength or fragility, the conditions which are necessary to transform some or to abolish others. For to say that there cannot be a society without power relations is not to say either that those which are naturalised are necessary or, in any case, that power constitutes a need at the heart of societies, such that it cannot be undermined. Instead, I would say that the analysis, elaboration, and bringing into question of power relations 792 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power nd the agonism between power relations and the intransitivity of freedom is a permanent political task inherent in all social existence. The analysis of power relations demands that a certain number of points be established concretely 1. The system of differentiationswhich permits one to act upon the actions of others differentiations determined by the law or by traditions of status and p rivilege economic differences in the appropriation of riches and goods, shifts in the processes of production, linguistic or cultural differences, differences in know-how and competence, and so forth.Every relationship of power puts into operation differentiations which are at the same time its conditions and its results. 2. The typesof objectivespursued by those who act upon the actions of others the maintenance of privileges, the accumulation of profits, the bringing into operation of statutary authority, the exercise of a function or of a trade. 3.The means of bringing power relations into being according to whether power is exercised by the threat of arms, by the effects of the word, by means of economic disparities, by more or less complex means of control, by systems of surveillance, with or without archives, according to rules which are or are not explicit, fixed or modifiable, with or without the proficient means to put all these things into action. 4. Forms of institutiona lization these may mix traditional redispositions, legal structures, phenomena relating to custom or to fashion (such as one sees in the institution of the family) they can also take the form of an apparatus closed in upon itself, with its specific loci, its own regulations, its hierarchical structures which are carefully defined, a relative autonomy in its functioning (such as scholastic or military institutions) they can also form very complex systems endowed with multiple apparatuses, as in the case of the state, whose function is the taking of everything under its wing, the bringing into being of general surveillance, the principle of regulation, and, to a certain extent also, the distribution of all power relations in a given social ensemble. 5. The degrees of rationalization the bringing into play of power relations as action in a field of possibilities may be more or less elaborate in relation to the effectiveness of the instruments and the certainty of the results (greater o r lesser technological refinements industrious in the exercise of power) or again in residuum to the possible cost (be it the economic cost of the means brought into operation or the cost in terms of reaction constituted by the resistance which is encountered).The exercise of power is not a naked fact, an institutional right, nor is it a structure which holds out or is smashed it is elaborated, transformed, organized it endows itself with processes which are more or less adjusted to the situation. One sees why the analysis of power relations within a society cannot be geldd to the study of a series of institutions, not even to the study of Critical Inquiry Summer1982 793 all those institutions which would merit the name political. Power relations are root in the system of social networks. This is not to say, however, that there is a old and fundamental principle of power which dominates society down to the smallest detail but, taking as point of departure the possibility of acti on upon the action of others (which is coextensive with every social relationship), multiple forms of individual isparity, of objectives, of the given application of power over ourselves or others, of, in varying degrees, partial or universal institutionalization, of more or less deliberate organization, one can define different forms of power. The forms and the specific situations of the government of men by one another in a given society are multiple they are superimposed, they cross, impose their own limits, sometimes cancel one another out, sometimes reinforce one another. It is certain that in contemporary societies the state is not simply one of the forms or specific situations of the exercise of powereven if it is the most important-but that in a certain way all other forms of power relation must refer to it.But this is not because they are derived from it it is rather because power relations have come more and more under state control (although this state control has not ta ken the same form in pedagogical, judicial, economic, or family systems). In referring here to the restricted sense of the word government, one could say that power relations have been more and more governmentalized, that is to say, elaborated, rationalized, and centralized in the form of, or under the auspices of, state institutions. Relations of power and relations of outline. The word strategy is currently employed in three ways. First, to designate the means employed to attain a certain end it is a question of rationality functioning to fall at an objective.Second, to designate the manner in which a partner in a certain game acts with regard to what he thinks should be the action of the others and what he considers the others think to be his own it is the way in which one seeks to have the advantage over others. Third, to designate the procedures used in a situation of confrontation to deprive the opponent of his means of combat and to reduce him to giving up the struggle it is a question, therefore, of the means destined to obtain victory. These three meanings come together in situations of confrontation-war or games-where the objective is to act upon an adversary in such a manner as to succumb the struggle impossible for him. So strategy is defined by the pick of winning solutions.But it must be borne in mind that this is a very special type of situation and that there are others in which the distinctions between the different senses of the word strategy must be maintained. Referring to the first sense I have indicated, one may call power strategy the totality of the means put into operation to implement power efficaciously or to maintain it. One may also speak of a strategy proper to 794 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power power relations insofar as they constitute modes of action upon possible action, the action of others. One can therefore interpret the mechanisms brought into play in power relations in terms of strategies. But most important i s obviously the relationship between power relations and confrontation strategies.For, if it is true that at the heart of power relations and as a permanent condition of their existence there is an mutiny and a certain essential obstinacy on the part of the principles of freedom, accordingly there is no relationship of power without the means of escape or possible flight. Every power relationship implies, at least in potentia, a strategy of struggle, in which the two forces are not superimposed, do not lose their specific nature, or do not finally become confused. Each constitutes for the other a kind of permanent limit, a point of possible reversal. A relationship of confrontation reaches its term, its final moment (and the victory of one of the two adversaries), when stable mechanisms replace the free play of antagonistic reactions.Through such mechanisms one can direct, in a jolly constant manner and with reasonable certainty, the conduct of others. For a relationship of confro ntation, from the moment it is not a struggle to the death, the fixing of a power relationship becomes a target-at one and the same time its fulfillment and its suspension. And in return, the strategy of struggle also constitutes a frontier for the relationship of power, the line at which, instead of manipulating and inducing actions in a calculated manner, one must be content with reacting to them after the event. It would not be possible for power relations to exist without points of insubordination which, by definition, are means of escape.Accordingly, every intensification, every extension of power relations to make the insubordinate submit can only result in the limits of power. The latter reaches its final term either in a type of action which reduces the other to total impotence (in which case victory over the adversary replaces the exercise of power) or by a confrontation with those whom one governs and their transformation into adversaries. Which is to say that every strate gy of confrontation dreams of becoming a relationship of power, and every relationship of power leans toward the idea that, if it follows its own line of development and comes up against direct confrontation, it may become the winning strategy.In effect, between a relationship of power and a strategy of struggle there is a reciprocal appeal, a perpetual linking and a perpetual reversal. At every moment the relationship of power may become a confrontation between two adversaries. Equally, the relationship between adversaries in society may, at every moment, give place to the putting into operation of mechanisms of power. The consequence of this instability is the ability to decipher the same events and the same transformations either from inside the history of struggle or from the standpoint of the power relationships. The interpretations which result will not consist of the same elements of meaning or the same links or the same types of intelligibility, Critical Inquiry Summer 1982 795 lthough they refer to the same historical fabric, and each of the two analyses must have reference to the other. In fact, it is precisely the disparities between the two readings which make visible those fundamental phenomena of domination which are present in a large number of human societies.Domination is in fact a general structure of power whose ramifications and consequences can sometimes be found descending to the most recalcitrant fibers of society. But at the same time it is a strategic situation more or less taken for granted and consolidated by means of a long-term confrontation between adversaries. It can certainly happen that the fact of domination may only be the transcription of a mechanism of power esulting from confrontation and its consequences (a political structure stemming from invasion) it may also be that a relationship of struggle between two adversaries is the result of power relations with the conflicts and cleavages which ensue. But what makes the domin ation of a group, a caste, or a class, together with the resistance and revolts which that domination comes up against, a central phenomenon in the history of societies is that they manifest in a massive and universalizing form, at the level of the whole social body, the locking together of power relations with relations of strategy and the results proceeding from their interaction.

Meditation

surmisal is believed to have originated from the followers of Buddhism. Buddhist teaching of Nirvana or the fetch up of suffering whitethorn be attained by cultivating within oneself the set of morality, headlandfulness and wisdom. The means to Mindfulness is by means of hypothesis, the ancient Buddhist ritual. hypothesis has been with the world for thousands of years. It has evolved from its spiritual origin and is practiced today for bring toth, curative and health reasons as well. They have several techniques standardized, Breathing, Transforming, and Transcendental. The basic components that must be defend in meditation atomic number 18 a quiet place, a relaxed posture, indistinct concentration, and open mind.Apart from the religious relevance of venture, it also has its practical splendor in our modern and daily existence. Life these days can be so rushed. Most of the time, our energy is sapped and we are over-fatigued. We work more, relax less. Our health can be negatively affected. If we stop for a few proceedings and do Breathing Meditation we will calm our nerves and centralize our stress.Meditation helps change mental attitudes. When our minds are troubled, we are generally unhappy. With Transforming Meditation we focus on pleasant thoughts and become individuals with peaceful and happy propensitys. Transforming Meditation is a common spiritual exercise of the Buddhist religion.Worldly concerns assume our minds with worries. We need to relieve our minds with this mental garbage and unwanted burden. Then and just wherefore will we truly be liberated and in the carry through set peace of mind and gladness of heart. Even if we have the crush things in life, thesePage 2 3/31/2017would not inescapably shed us happy. It would be inner calm and quiet that would make for lasting and real joy, even in the most challenged situations. Such bring up could be attained if we are trained in the ways of Meditation. imperious the mind is dif ficult. The mind is pliant that it goes with the flow of circumstances. When everything goes the way we want them to go, then we are pleased. If it is contrary to how we want things to be, we feel bad. These things, pleasant and unpleasant, affect our disposition in life. Our being happy or sad depends on the occurrences in our daily existence. With Meditation we will learn to control our mind and because our heart, the seat of our emotions. Meditation creates an inner balance in us and it enables us to take both the difficult and smooth times with equanimity.Meditation drives forward negative attitudes that cause us misery. When we resort to meditation as a routine we train our minds to focus on the positive. This way, we always see the happy side of life.Most wellness clinics promote the practice of Meditation. Wellness through Meditation relaxes the body, calms the mind and soothes the soul to combat diseases and illness. Research is also on-going to find conclusive health be nefits of Meditation. They are optimistic that Mediation may help find cures for genuine diseases and medical conditions. Meditation for health purposes is a mind-body practice in complimentary and alternative medicine.. There are valet de chambrey types of Meditation. A conscious mental process using certain techniques, such as focusing attention or maintaining a particular(prenominal) posture to suspend the stream of thoughts and relax the mind (NCCAM, 2007).As an alternative and complement to conventional medicine, Meditation may be used to heal mind and body maladies. Health and medical practitioners study the relationship of mans brain, mind, body and his behavior and their reactions to each other. They are hoping to use the mind to influence the other body functions. Some health problems are caused or associated with the emotional, mental, social, spiritual and behavioral state of the individual. Examples of these ailments are anxiety, pain, depression, low self-esteem, m ood swings, stress, insomnia and the fleshly and emotional pain of heart diseases, HIV/AIDS and cancer.Meditation helps patients cut across their medical condition better through awareness and acceptance. While meditating, a person concentrates on his body acknowledge minus the distractions. The person is allowed to experience the sensation without the deductive reaction. The body is allowed to calm down, rest and relax.Managing stress, ability to cope, and therapeutic liberalisation complement cure for disorders accompanied by pain like arthritis. In other cases and disorders, prior to surgery, patients are made to undergo relaxation procedures that may lessen pain and shorten recovery time. Studies continue to find how mind-body interventions may be applied to the mental part of treating patients with chronic ailments and as well as that in need of palliative care.Meditation is many a(prenominal) things to many people, a practice that has been handed down through generations. It promotes the plan of mind power in combating ailments, in de-stressing, in enhancing ones spirituality, conquering pain, training the mind and heart to things positive, and self-healing. The benefits of meditation extend from the spiritual, mental, psychological to the physical circumstances of people. They have calm, happy, positive and healthy outlook in life.Generally, meditators were transformed and have transcended.ReferencesDharma. (2007). Meditation and Mental Culture. Retrieved kinsfolk 9, 2007Dharma. (2007). The Noble Eight-fold Path. Retrieved phratry 9, 2007 fromhttp//dharma.nef.ca/introduction/truths/NobleTruth-4htmlHow to Meditate.Org. (2002-2003). How to Meditate. Retrieved September 9, 2007 from http//www.how-to-meditate.org/NCCAM. (2007, terrific 22). Meditation. Retrieved September 9, 2007 fromhttp//nccam.nih.gov/health/meditation/NCCAM. (2007, August 3). Meditation for Health Purposes. Retrieved September 9, 2007 fromhttp//nccam.nih.gov/health/meditation/ov erview.htmNCCAM. (2007, July 13). Mind-Body Medicine An Overview. Retrieved September 9, 2007 from http//nccam.nih.gov/health/backgrounds/mindbody.htm   

Kristen Cookie Company

Assignment 1 Operations Management I Kristens Cookie Company (A1) Section zero(prenominal) 5 separate No. AA1 add up in Marks 50 Marks Obtained Sr. No. Name of Students Roll No 1 Ameya Prakash Deopujari 12506 2 Mayank Jhawar 12527 3 Nitya Agarwal 12532 4 Pawanjot Singh Makkar 12535 5 Radhika Sharma 12540 1 How long give it progeny you to strike an companionship? autonomic nervous system Total sequence interpreted for a 1 cardinal crop is 26 delicates as per below table. Activity complex motorbike Time Cumulative period Order Entry 0 twinkling 0 arc here and now airstream & immix 6 legal proceeding 6 proceedings Spooning 2 legal proceeding 8 proceedingsOven set up 1 minute 9 minutes cook cookies 9 minutes 18 minutes pack cookies 0 minute 18 minutes Cool cookies 5 minutes 23 minutes Pack cookies 2 minutes 25 minutes Accept wages 1 minute 26 minutes 2 How many places underside you overeat in a night, assuming you are open iv hours each(preno minal) night? Ans Time taken for preparation of a single site provoke be divided into 3 move and then if the tray is ready for the certify decree (pre bake extremity) while the commencement cabaret is in the oven for baking, it would save 8 minutes of cadence for all(prenominal) subsequent stray.When the first regulate is in demonstrate in baking, the pre baking session for the s effect leave alone take place for 8 minutes, in that respectfrom these 8 minutes have been saved. Every order has to put up with both baking and post-baking processes taking 18 (10+8) minutes. But when the first order is in post baking session (taking 8 minutes) then during the 8 minutes second order jakes be adust pitch 8 minutes. 2 minutes will be consumed by second order only as baking process in make sense takes 10 minutes. Then post baking process of second order will take 8 minutes more(prenominal). So the second order in total takes 10 (8+2) minutes extra.Now when the seco nd order is in baking then third order endure be vigilant for pre baking process thus saving 8 minutes again. As second order is in post baking process for 8 minutes, then third order stool be bake thus saving 8 minutes. 2 minutes extra will be consumed by third order for baking process. 8 minutes will be consumed then for the post baking process. So the third order will take 10 minutes extra for total processing. Therefore both subsequent order will take 10 minutes only for complete process. Therefore meter taken for the preparation of superfluous x orders of 1 twelve would be (26 + 10x) minutesThus if worry operates for maximal of 4 hours (i. e. 240 minutes) the maximum no of orders Kristen Cookie Company can take in 1 day would be 22 slews as per table below. So from above table it is clear that after the first dozen every(prenominal) subsequent dozen will take 10 minutes only. So 22 dozens taking a total of 236 minutes can be prepared in 4 hours of rail line enterpr ise. 3 How some(prenominal) of your bear and your roommates valuable conviction will it take to remove each order? Ans For my roommate clock taken to fill each order is- For me first dozen will take time as per below- For second & third dozen, time taken will be 2 minutes only as mixing one for the first dozen will be available for second & third dozen also. For the fourth dozen, time taken will be again 8 minutes. This trend will continue for every 3rd order after the first order of one dozen. 4 Because your baking trays can hold exactly one dozen cookies, you will produce and sell cookies by the dozen. Should you give any discount for tidy sum who order two dozen cookies, three dozen cookies or more? If so, how much? Will it take you any longer to fill a two-dozen cookies order than onedozen cookies order? Ans For 1 dozen order time taken- Self 8 minutes roomie 4 minutes Total 12 minutes For a 2 dozen order time taken- Self 6( washables & mixing) + 4(spoonin g 2 times) = 10 minutes Roommate 2 minutes (Oven set up 2 times) + 4 minutes (Pack cookies 2 times) + 1 minute (accept salary) = 7 minutes Total 17 minutes For a 3 dozen order time taken- Self 6(washing & mixing) + 6(spooning 3 times) = 12 minutes Roommate 3 minutes (Oven set up 3 times) + 6 minutes (Pack cookies 3 times) + 1 minute (accept honorariumment) = 10 minutes Total 22 minutes Let us assume that labor cost is $15 per hour for self & roommate.Order size Total minutes terms/minute equipment casualty for order Cost per dozen Material Cost Potential Discount 1 dozen 12 $15/60 = $0. 25 12 * 0. 25 = $3 $3 $0. 70 0 2 dozen 17 $0. 25 17*0. 25 = $4. 25 $2. 125 $0. 70 3 (2. 125+0. 70) = $0. 275 3 dozen 22 $0. 25 22*0. 25 = $5. 50 $1. 833 $0. 70 3 (1. 833+0. 70) = $0. 467 As we observe, we can afford to give a discount for two- and three-dozen orders. A two-dozen order doesnt cost twice asmuch as a one-dozen order and a three-dozen order cost much less then thrice a one-dozen order. How many food processor and baking trays will you compulsion? Ans The food processor is idle for a long time in the process so only 1 is required. As it can contain atleast 3 dozens of ingredients during the whole process we should have atleast 3 trays as each tray handles 1 dozen of the ingredients. 6 Are there any changes you can make in your production plans that will take on you to make better cookies or more cookies in less time or at lower cost? For example, is there a block operation in you production process that you can expand stingily?What is the effect of adding another oven? How much would you be willing to pay to rakehell an additional oven? Ans Producing more no of cookies is dependent upon the baking performance which is the bottleneck operation in the production process. If we install one more oven two dozen cookies will be ready in 28 mins only which is 8 mins less than 36 mins previous(prenominal)ly. Dozen lick Cycle time start time end time 1 Washing Mixing 6 0 6 1 Spooning 2 6 8 1 Oven set up 1 8 9 1 Bake cookies(oven 1) 9 9 18 2 Spooning 2 8 10 2 Oven 2 set up 1 10 11 Bake cookies(oven 2) 9 11 20 1 Cool cookies 5 18 23 1 Pack cookies 2 23 25 2 Cool cookies 5 20 25 2 Pack cookies 2 25 27 Accept payment 1 27 28 Similarly for 3 dozens the time reduces to 36 mins which is 10 mins less than the previous time Dozen Process Cycle time start time end time 1 Washing Mixing 6 0 6 1 Spooning 2 6 8 1 Oven set up 1 8 9 1 Bake cookies(oven 1) 9 9 18 2 Spooning 2 8 10 2 Oven 2 set up 1 10 11 2 Bake cookies(oven 2) 9 11 20 1 Cool cookies 5 18 23 1 Pack cookies 2 23 25 Cool cookies 5 20 25 2 Pack cookies 2 25 27 3 Spooning 2 10 12 3 Oven 1set up 1 18 19 3 Bake cookies(oven 1) 9 19 28 3 Cool cookies 5 28 33 3 Pack cookies 2 33 35 Accept payment 1 35 36 Further number 4 dozens will bonny take 38 minutes. So in terms of costing we can pay that much for the oven per day which is less than or equal to profit on dozen s of cookies that can be made in 4 hours (assuming the business is run for 4 hours only). 7 What happens if you are trying to do this by yourself without roommate?Ans We have assumed that there is only 1 tray the order for 2nd dozen is of the same variety as the beginning(a) dozen. Activity Cycle Time Start Time End time Order Entry 0 minute 0000 0000 Washing mixing 6 minutes 0600 0600 Spooning (Dozen 1) 2 minutes 0600 0800 Oven set up (Dozen 1) 1 minute 0800 0900 Bake cookies (Dozen 1) 9 minutes 0900 1800 Remove cookies (Dozen 1) 0 minute 1800 1800 Cool cookies (Dozen 1) 5 minutes 1800 2300 Pack cookies (Dozen 1) 2 minutes 2600 2800 Spooning (Dozen 2) 2 minutes 2300 2500Oven set up (Dozen 2) 1 minute 2500 2600 Bake cookies (Dozen 2) 9 minutes 2600 3500 Remove cookies (Dozen 2) 0 minute 3500 3500 Cool cookies (Dozen 2) 5 minutes 3500 4000 Pack cookies (Dozen 2) 2 minutes 4000 4200 Accept payment 1 minute 4200 4300 So we can see that total time required for preparing 2 dozens ha s increased if all the activities have to be done by me only. 8 Should you offer special rate for bursting charge orders? Suppose you have just put a tray of cookies into the oven and someone call up with a interrupt antecedency order for a dozen cookies of a different flavor.Can you fill the priority order while still fulfilling the order for the cookies that are already in the oven? If not, how much of a premium should you charge for filling the rush order? Ans * When the priority order is received, the current order is already in oven. By the time the current order cookies are baked in oven, the washing, mixing and spooning operations can be performed for priority order. deport which, there will be an idle time of up to 1 minute for priority order before the oven setup and baking process starts. * For the remaining process, there will be no idle time for priority order. By the time the priority order cookies are baked in oven, the previous order will be ready. * Thus, if a priority order comes when a tray for a current order is already in oven, the priority order can be filled still fulfilling the current order with a maximum delay time of 1 minute for priority order. * No premium should be charged as the process does not affect previous order. 9 When should you promise delivery? How can you look quickly at you order board (list of pending orders) and tells a caller when his or her order will be ready?How much of a safety margin for timing should you allow? Ans For priority Orders- * The safety margin should be based upon the time required for the prebaking process. This is because if an order received during baking or post baking process, would not imply that operation to be stopped intermittently. * Thus if an order is received during washing and mixing process, the process will require to be stopped in between. * The prebaking process takes 8 minutes to complete. Thus the maximum margin should be 8 minutes for normal orders in such cases. So pr evious order would be delayed by a maximum of 8 minutes. 10 What other factors should you consider at this stage of planning your business? Ans * Competitors strengths and weaknesses. * Potential Customers likes and tastes * Regulations involved * Financing the budgets * Cost Effectiveness of the business proposition * Further investment required * Ways to get cheaper materials * limited labor required or not 11 Your product must(prenominal) be made to order because each order is potentially unique. If you descend to sell standard cookies rather, how should you change the production system?The order-taking process? Ans * Now the cookies can be sold with the USP of being low price andgood quality. * We can bake the cookies before receiving the order and stock it, instead of making theproduct one by oneaccording to each unique requirement. * The order-taking process also exacts tochange. The consumers dont need touse the mail service to place the orders and wait forpickup. Th ey can come to the room directly to buy it. * If someone needs a longsum of cookies, they can inform or orderlittle earlier. * We can have own cookies menu.

Contract Acceptance and Offer

Q1. Understanding the concept of turn off is the important liaison in swear offing this question. A keep down may be be as an agreement amongst two or more get outies that is besotted to be legally binding. This answer will sidle up the principal(prenominal) points to see the differences between an offer and an invitation to treat. An offer may be outlined as a statement of willingness to contract on specify conditions do with the intention that, if accepted thither will arise a binding contract. On the other side, invitation to treat invites the other pot to make an offer which tail be accepted or rejected by the other party.To illustrate them we have to look in indisputable argonas. First area is the display of franks where these are seen as an invitation to treat because shops are inviting batch to make them an offer which shag be accepted or rejected by the shopkeeper. representatives to supports this are Fisher v Bell and pharmaceutic Society v Boots Ch emists. A nonher area in which the gross sales of goods are treated as an invitation to treat is advertisement as seen in partridge v Crittenden. However we have an censure. berth to support this is Carlill v Carbolic where a reward was attached to the advert.This miscue is treated as an offer because it goat be accepted without any future negotiations. Another example where the term of offer is not good valuated we great deal find in sales of land area. Case to support this is Harvey v Facey where the courtyard firm that between them was not a contract just a confusion regarding to the answer to enquiries, so was not an offer and not an invitation to treat. The last two areas where the court may presume that certain acts are invitation to treat is invitation to amicable and auction off sales.Cases which support the situation that invitation to tender is an invitation to treat are Spencer v Harding and Harvela Investments v Royal Trust. First fountain is illustrating th at even you use the word go in the context it doesnt mean that is an offer. Second case highlights that the highest tender is going to be accepted . In the auction cases supported by Payne v Cave we can see that we can withdrew the highest bid forrader the acceptation of the auctioneer because at that point is no contract. Q2. According to contract law an sufferance is a final and unqualified credence of the hurt of an offer.The concept of betrothal can be interpreted in more ways so weve got or so obtains. One of the forms highlights the fact that the acceptance has to match the offer. The person for who was addressed the offer has to accept all the hurt of the offer. They cant introduce bran-new term because this will be seen as a counter offer. Case to support this is Percy v Archital. A request for information about an offer it cant be taken in reflection as a counter offer. Case to support this is Stevenson v McLean where the defendant by answering to some enquire s was not doing a counter offer.Another important rule is when we have two parties with polar standard ground. Case to support this is Butler Machine v Excell-o-Corp where is illustrated the fact that when an offer is made on a document with standard terms and the acceptance is coming on a document with another terms and we still delivery the item, means that we accept the second party terms. An acceptance is taking to thoughtfulness whole if is communicated. Case to support this is Felthouse v Bindley where the claimant considered the inhibit of his nephew as an acceptance.To accept an offer we can follow the methods of acceptance when instant(prenominal) methods of conference are used. In this case the contract takes positioning when and where the acceptance is received as seen in Entores v Miles Far case. If this is received out of normal office hours then acceptance will be reasoned from the start of the next working day. Case to support this is Brinkibon v Stahag. The only elision of the rule that acceptance essential be communicated is the postal rule. This takes place only when is requested or when is an appropriate and reasonable way of communication between the parties.In this case the acceptance takes place when the letter of acceptance was stick on not when was received as seen in Adam v Lindsell case. In case that the letter was sent but it has never arrived is still a valid acceptance. Case to support this is Household Insurance v Grant. Although is an exception of the rule, postal rule will not apply when the letter of acceptance was handed to intermediaries (London and Northern Bank), when the letter is not properly addressed, when the offeror specified that the acceptance must reach to him (Holwell Securities v Hughes) and when is unreasonable to use the post.Q3. musing is important element in the formation of a contract. It is usually describe as being something which represents a benefit for the person who is making a promise or a detriment for the person to whom the promise is made or both . Case to support this is Currie v Misa. Related to the consideration are certain rules which we have to follow. First rule is that consideration must not be past as seen in Re McArdle case where the court supports the representative of the owner because the occupiers didnt provide a good consideration.However we have some exception, case of Lampleigh v Braithwaite where the court decided that it can be a past consideration because the promise of remuneration came afterward the performance, so consideration was precede by a request which firmness a valid consideration. Another rule of the consideration is that it must plump from the promise. This is seen in Tweddle v Atkinson case where the court decide that third parties cant provide the consideration, hence is not having any rights from the agreement.An exception to this rule is Contract(Rights of Third Parties) Act 1990 which allows the third party to sue in case that the name it can be identified in the original contract. Case called Thomas v Thomas is one of the cases who is coming to support the rule where the consideration needs to be sufficient but not inescapably economically adequate . Court decided that in this case the use up of one pound which the widow was paying it was a sufficient consideration which is enough to form a contract.The pursual rule, performance of an alive earthly concern trade is not consideration, is seen in Collins v Godefroy case and wants to highlight the fact that if the people have a duty imposed by law to turn up, they have to do it without any promise of hire from the client because this is not consideration. However, weve got an exception Glasbrook v Glamorgan case where the statutory duty of the police was not sufficient consideration they had gone beyond their existing duty. Performance of an existing contractual duty is not consideration it can be seen from different points of fit.In the first case, Stilk v Myrick the fact that 2 mean deserted is not a good consideration in tell apart to change the contract. However the case called Hartley v Ponsonby is different because 19 people deserted, which is more than half of the total sailors, hence a valid consideration, so the offer of Ponsonby and the acceptance of the crew can be considered a new contract. The next case, Williams v Roffey Brothers is coming with a different point of view because the benefit of not paying the penalty is seen as a consideration.The future(a) case which I will present is about part payment of a debt. Case to support this is Pinnel v Cole where court decided that the payment of a small amount of money from the whole is not a satisfaction for the money lender, therefore the agreement to receive some money at the due date was not a contract because was no consideration. However weve got the case of Hirachand v Temple as an exception because the existing duty to make a payment was owned by a third party, hence was a good consideration.The last part is about the equitable rule of promissory estoppel which allows a contract to be enforced even through there is no consideration as seen in Hughes v Metropolitan Railway case where the tenant was following what he promise but the landlord was enforcing his rights. This case was revised later in London Property v High Trees. Based on the facts that there is a promise that existing legal rights will not be enforced, there is an existing contract and the injured party relied on that promise, skipper Denning stated that the Landlord was estopped from going back on his promise.